Reptile basics 101: Tips and veterinary insights

 

While not furry or cuddly, reptiles, to some, are better than anything soft and fluffy. If you are already comfortable handling reptiles, great. If you aren't but have a clientele who needs your expertise, here are a few basics to get you started and help guide you as you navigate the reptile world. A significant portion of exotic pet veterinary care, and often the majority, should be and is client education.

Three key words in reptile medicine (and other exotics) are often husbandry, husbandry, husbandry. Quite often, a failure in nutrition, environmental conditions, or inadequate enrichment leads to health problems that bring these animals into the clinic. Sadly, routine annual care goes by the wayside, and we often only get to help these species when it may be too late. Knowing some basics and how to educate a new reptile pet owner out of the gate may help prevent numerous health problems down the line.

Not all reptiles are created equal

According to the American Veterinary Medical Association's (AVMA) 2024 pet ownership statistics, 2.3 million U.S. households have reptiles, representing about 1.8 percent of the total pet owning population. Reptiles fall below cats, dogs, and fish, but are more frequently encountered in family units than birds, small mammals, and rabbits, and they need veterinary care, too!¹ The 2024 statistics may underrepresent the true population, as a more recent 2025 survey by the American Pet Products Association National Pet Owners Survey shows a much higher number and a trend upwards in reptile ownership with closer to six million U.S. households owning reptiles.²

If a client approaches you asking about reptiles, perhaps considering getting one for a family member, there are many factors to consider when advising on the care requirements and potential risks of having a reptile as a pet. Understanding not all owners can handle a full-grown ball python or a client living in a studio apartment probably doesn't have the space for a suitable enclosure for a full-grown iguana, along with the risks of infectious diseases, influences any reptile recommendations or choices for an individual or family.

Sadly, all too often, owners acquire reptiles as pets without conducting proper research to fully understand the care required, potential health issues, risks of infectious disease transmission, and environmental and nutritional needs. Usually, they already have the pet before seeking your advice. While it's hard to remember the specifics about each species, knowing how to perform a basic physical exam, recognizing common problems, and knowing where to find resources and expertise are essential. Each species has unique nutritional, environmental, and medical needs that require understanding the basics to provide excellent reptile care.

Owner considerations

What reptiles make good starter pets? For young kids? For first-time reptile owners? For families with limited space? For potential pet parents with all the funds and space in the world? Venemous vs non-venemous? All these are great questions clients may need help answering. Selecting reptiles is a very individualized process. Factors to advise clients to keep in mind when considering reptiles include:^3,4

• Behavior concerns (biting, venomous, some are more appropriate species than others for younger kids)
• Diet (plant vs. meat vs. insect vs. combo eaters) and often this differs with life stages for many species (something many new reptile owners often misunderstand, frequently leading to metabolic bone disease or other malnutrition-related issues). Would an owner be comfortable feeding live or frozen prey species and an appropriate diet to a carnivorous animal? Insects for insectivores?
• Do they want something that will be very interactive and enjoy human touch (g., bearded dragons, red-eared sliders), or more of an animal to watch from afar (e.g., venomous species)?
• Enrichment needs
• Environment (water/land/tree dwelling)
• How to recognize a healthy reptile (can be challenging)
• Hygiene and care needs
• Infectious disease risks and family members at high risk
• Reproductive issues/concerns
• Routine vet care (recommended at least annually, as with other species/pets)
• Space available (g., an iguana enclosure ideally should be the size of an entire room, not a small aquarium, as is often the misconception, so someone in a tiny apartment isn't a great candidate for an iguana and should consider a smaller lizard).
• Cost of care
• Unique pathophysiology (temperature and humidity needs, UVB light requirements)
• Who is expected to care for the pet (kids, immunosuppressed individuals are at higher risk of infectious disease from handling improperly)

Husbandry, husbandry, husbandry

Let's talk husbandry. While it would be great to say all reptiles need XYZ and leave it at that, it is not nearly that simple. Although some generalizations can be made within groups (lizards, snakes, turtles/tortoises), each species—even within the same group—varies significantly in climate needs, diet, and more. We will focus only on non-venomous species as handling venomous species requires extra precautions and training, which is beyond the scope of this article.

10 husbandry dos and don'ts:⁵

1. Don't keep more than one species colocalized (most reptiles generally lead solitary lives, and once sexually mature, many species will fight with both the same and opposite sex, showing aggression and territoriality)
2. Most reptiles do best when they are the only pet in an enclosure
3. Do you have enough space for each species? This is where many owners fail right off the bat. See the chart in Merck Veterinary Manual for minimum recommended space, though other resources will vary slightly; larger is definitely better. Not only does giving animals enough room permit proper growth (some species may grow to the length/size of the enclosure), but it also provides enrichment and increased activity, as well as more ways for places to hide, climb, or soak, depending on species type and needs.^6,7
4. Ensure owners understand the type of animal they have and the environment they need. Species may be aquatic, terrestrial, arboreal, or subterranean, and that plays a significant role in both their nutritional and environmental needs.
5. Understanding substrates and pluses and minuses of the various types, as well as the amount of care and clean up required, aids in creating the perfect environment. Recognizing which species may ingest their bedding in advance is key to preventing obstructions.
6. Ensure an adequate water supply.
7. Ensure proper hiding places, basking locations, and temperature variants within an enclosure.
8. Ensure frequent enclosure cleanings with soap and water, or if a full clean-out is warranted, perhaps bleach, but some products can be toxic, so owners need to know to be careful.
9. Ensure owners properly regulate and monitor not just temperature, but humidity, as most species have ranges of both that help keep them healthy.
10. Know if a species goes into a state of hibernation or related mode, and understand the requirements and triggers for that phase of life.

Remember to emphasize to clients reptiles are ectotherms and thermoregulate via the assistance of their environment. If their environment is inappropriate, they don't thermoregulate the way they are intended, which interferes with physiologic processes and increases the risk of disease.⁸

What other things do owners need to be educated about? Consider various species grouped according to lizards, non-venomous snakes, turtles, tortoises, and others, e.g., crocodilians.⁹

• Proper heating sources and where to put them, and what to avoid to prevent burns (g., hot rocks).
• How to provide temperature gradients within an enclosure safely and to optimize health.
• Appropriate UVB lights, duration of use (varies with species), need, vs beneficial (most chelonians and diurnal lizards require a UVB source to ensure appropriate vitamin D3 levels, but all reptiles benefit regardless of activity level and time of day). The appropriate wavelengths range from 290 to 300 nm.
• Humidity regulation and monitoring in case intervention is warranted.

 

Basic physical exam⁷

A thorough history primes your mind to think about certain possible diseases. However, do not latch onto a poor diet and presume the issue is metabolic bone disease without doing a thorough and complete physical examination. Some species, obviously, are more cooperative and easier to evaluate than others.

A few tips: Have a pediatric or infant stethoscope available (either via an interchangeable head or separate scope) to facilitate auscultation of the smaller guys. For all reptiles, you can use wet gauze and place it under your stethoscope over the heart area, as this can help amplify sound (while also hydrating the pet a little). Additionally, if you have a Doppler available, this can help ascertain heart rates.

Ensure you have someone comfortable with the gentle restraint and handling of reptiles before proceeding. In larger species, such as the iguanids, ensure you have someone controlling the tail and another the head while evaluating your patient to prevent injury to staff, you, owners, and the animal.

I provided my SOAP template (See "Veterinary resources") of how I do my exam and things I look for specifically with most species for your use. Be systematic and consistent with each species type and with each evaluation to ensure you hit all the necessary regions and don't miss anything. Know your limits. If you are unfamiliar with a species and uncomfortable handling/evaluating, speak up. Safety of all remains crucial. Don't forget to evaluate feces/urates, oral cavities, vent, coelom, eyes, skin, and any other relevant species-specific structures.

Going into specific restraint and physical exam needs is beyond the scope of this article; however, the manner in which we evaluate and restrain our reptilian patients will vary with temperament and size. Consider using towels, plastic containers with air holes, restraint tubes, snake hooks, and related devices for scared or aggressive critters. Covering eyes to minimize stress as with rabbits and rodents can also aid in evaluation and soothe many species.¹⁰

Common clinical diseases of reptiles

While we aren't going to go into any detail, at least recognizing possible differentials may help guide you towards possible diagnostics (e.g., imaging, bloodwork, cultures) and therapies. Understanding the common conditions seen in reptiles will then help you narrow down your differential list. Even once a diagnosis is made, ensure you assess for underlying management factors that lead to illness and adjust dietary and environmental conditions as soon as possible to prevent recurrence or other ailments in the future.

Non-infectious:

Common non-infectious diseases encountered by reptiles include:^7,11–13

1. Hypovitaminosis A, most commonly seen in chelonians, which manifests with ocular, skin, and aural issues.
2. Metabolic bone disease, AKA secondary nutritional hyperparathyroidism, results from excess phosphorus or insufficient calcium intake and insufficient UVB light, preventing vitamin D precursor activation. Signs may include soft shells in chelonians, tremors, seizures, muscle fasciculations, pathologic fractures, and acute death.
3. Gout due to abnormal uric acid secretion and hyperuricemia. Seen in excess commonly in herbivores offered a diet too rich in protein. Failure of excretion may result from kidney disease, dehydration, or insufficient water access. Either an excess in the diet or failure to excrete leads to a buildup, creating uric acid crystal deposits in tissues. Signs include dehydration, lethargy, anorexia, depression, and painful, swollen joints.
4. Behavioral issues, including aggression (males vs. females or same sex competition or against people).
5. Trauma leading to a myriad of injuries from fractures to wounds.
6. Ischemic necrosis of the tail (g., repeated tail trauma in iguanids).
7. Dysecdysis (failure to shed normally) is usually due to poor husbandry practices, including low humidity, deficient diets, parasitism, viral or other infectious diseases, thyroid dysfunction, improper enclosures, and environmental components.
8. Live prey causing trauma, where infection/abscessation may follow.
9. Obesity
10. Starvation
11. Diabetes has been reported in chelonians and associated secondarily to neoplasia in bearded dragons (neuroendocrine carcinomas).

Reproductive diseases are also frequently encountered. Many owners may be unfamiliar with the animal's sex and not even know to look for reproductive concerns. Others may know but fail to appreciate concerns until it's too late.

Most commonly seen in reptiles, given their egg-laying nature, is dystocia (egg retention), while vent prolapses may occur, as well. Prolapses can include part or all of the colon, bladder (if they have one), cloaca, phallus or hemipenes, or oviduct. This often results due to trauma, infection, metabolic bone disease/malnutrition, dystocia, sexual activity, kidney disease, cancer, cystic calculi, or conditions causing straining (e.g., space-occupying mass within the body cavity).¹⁴

Infectious:

Numerous infectious diseases negatively affect the quality of life and overall health of our reptilian pets. Some can be easily prevented, while others may be harbored and obtained well before ownership is ever established. No one expects you to remember them all, but always consider infectious diseases as a possibility since gastrointestinal, neurologic, reproductive, and other clinical signs are not always caused by husbandry issues and may be infectious in origin. Remember to include parasites, including ecto- and endoparasites, along with common viral and bacterial conditions.

Viral:

Numerous viral diseases affect reptiles from various viral families, including retroviruses, herpesviruses, West Nile virus, iridoviruses, ferlaviruses, and nidoriviruses, papillomas, and inclusion body disease in boid snakes (finally identified as a reptarenavirus). ^7,15

Bacterial:

The types of bacterial diseases commonly seen in reptiles often arise as opportunistic infections due a poor husbandry practices and/or secondary immunosuppression. Gram-negative, commensal organisms are often encountered, though anaerobes are also prevalent (but difficult to identify).¹⁶

Frequent culprits associated with septicemia in reptiles include Pseudomonas and Aeromonas species. Signs may be acute death or include lethargy, weakness, ataxia, respiratory compromise, seizures, and petechiation can often be seen.¹⁶

Other bacterial conditions include:^7,16

1. Salmonella enterica
2. Infectious pneumonia may manifest as open-mouth breathing, shortness of breath, and discharge from the nasal region. Consider hypovitaminosis A, as well, as it is often concurrently diagnosed in lizards and turtles.
3. Septicemic cutaneous ulcerative disease (SCUD). This condition is seen in aquatic turtles presenting with pitting and sloughing of the scutes, often with purulent material. Animals are usually lethargic, not eating, and may have evidence of petechiation, abscesses, and liver changes. The causative agent is most commonly Citrobacter freundii, though vibriosis has also been known to cause shell disease.
4. Ulcerative or necrotic dermatitis (scale rot).
5. Mycoplasmosis manifests with upper respiratory tract disease in some crocodilians and in chelonians.
6. Abscesses of various etiologies, often due to trauma, are common in reptiles. They can occur as a result of improper husbandry practices and may be more than one causative agent of concern.
7. Otitis, a common issue in aquatic turtles and box turtles, often invades the middle ear and may require surgical management.

Empower clients: foster better care with knowledge

Client education about exotic pets, especially reptiles, is essential to ensure their safety and well-being. Reptiles need patience, attention to husbandry details, and proper hygiene practices.

As veterinarians, we understand the risks of zoonotic diseases, and clients must be properly informed of these risks, particularly for those who are immunosuppressed, younger than five, those over 65 years, or pregnant women.⁴

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) advises on reptile and amphibian ownership. They emphasize the importance of handwashing after handling anything in a reptile's environment, from their food/water containers/bowls to the pet itself. They want people to understand they can carry infectious diseases, including Mycobacterium species, Aeromonas species infections, and various Salmonella species of concern.⁴ For example, an infection of Salmonella Cotham was linked to an outbreak in the U.S. in 2024 associated with bearded dragon ownership, according to an August CDC Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR).¹⁷

Zoonotic disease risks

We must ensure clients understand the infectious disease risks that owning a reptile can pose to their family. Proper hand hygiene and care of the home, enclosure, and loved ones are crucial to reduce the One Health risks associated with keeping a reptile. Owners may underestimate the true dangers these pets can carry. They should be aware of the signs of illness in humans because reptiles are often silent carriers and do not show symptoms, which can give a false sense of security to the owner who is unaware.

Owners need to know not only the risks the individual pet may impart, but also if live or frozen prey is used, such as rodents, they may carry infectious diseases of zoonotic concern.¹⁸

The specifics of clinical disease in humans aren't something we need to focus on; however, if owners report clinical signs such as diarrhea or other ailments after handling their reptile, ensure they seek medical care and inform their physician of exposure risks. Owners need to understand reptiles are natural reservoirs or carriers of Salmonella species and remain (generally) asymptomatic. They need to understand even though their pet may appear healthy, they likely are shedding it in the excrement at every turn, and regardless of the age or immune status of the family members, all need to take appropriate precautions.⁴

Additional guidance

We know there is a lot of sketchy info out there on Dr. Google, and with AI more readily used, one never knows what to trust these days. However, numerous reputable resources are out there for us. Don't try to learn about each animal. There is just too much to assimilate. Use references and resources available to you. For example, LafeberVet has excellent client handouts on setting up a pet lizard's environment, UVB lighting handouts, specific species handouts, and more. They have educational videos and CE options. Knowing where to go to help you if you see a species you aren't familiar with is half the battle. Check out the AVMA's handout on selecting a pet. They have a good section on reptiles that may help those considering a reptile but have yet to take the plunge decide if a reptile is right for them.

Veterinary resources

1. Association of Reptile and Amphibian Veterinarians (ARAV)
2. Downloadable  Reptile SOAP Template 2025
3. Lafeber Vet:
4. Merck Veterinary Manual Reptile sections
5. Mader's Reptile and Amphibian Medicine and Surgery, Third Edition, 2019 ISBN 978-0-323-48253-0
6. AVMA Client Handout on Selecting a pet:

Reptile care and ownership nuances

Owning a reptile takes a lot of time and devotion, often much more than people anticipate before adopting or purchasing one. Some people do superficial research and come across a myriad of misinformation or incomplete recommendations that often lead them into your office when health issues arise. Many health issues in pet reptiles can be prevented or at least minimized through proper husbandry practices and education. Often, simple tweaks in the environment and/or diet can make a world of difference for both the pet and pet parent. No one expects you to keep the nuances of each and every reptile tucked inside your already very full brains, but understanding how to do a basic physical, common diseases, concerns, information key to pass on to your clients, and where to go when you need more assistance or need to direct your clients to reputable facts and practices are paramount.

Erica Tramuta-Drobnis, VMD, CPH, is the CEO and Founder of ELTD One Health Consulting, LLC. Dr. Tramuta-Drobnis works as a public health professional, emergency veterinarian, freelance writer, consultant, and researcher. She is passionate about One Health issues and believes that addressing pet health, food safety, agricultural health, and other related concerns can help highlight the interconnection of human, animal, and environmental health. Veterinarians are primed to be at the forefront of One Health initiatives, and she is passionate about issues from antimicrobial resistance to infectious disease control, vaccination health, and wildlife conservation. She is a strong advocate of evidence-based veterinary medicine and the president-elect of the Evidence Based Veterinary Medical Association (EBVMA). She hopes to promote the use of evidence-based practices through her writing and clinical work, preserving the human-animal bond and improving health outcomes within a One Health context.

 

References

1. American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA). U.S. pet ownership statistics. AVMA (American Veterinary Medical Association). 2024. Accessed September 15, 2025. https://www.avma.org/resources-tools/reports-statistics/us-pet-ownership-statistics
2. American Pet Products Association (APPA). Manufacturers & Pet Product Brands Industry Trends and Stats. APPA (American Pet Productions Association). 2025. Accessed September 15, 2025. https://americanpetproducts.org/industry-trends-and-stats
3. American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA). Selecting a pet reptile. AVMA (American Veterinary Medical Association). Accessed September 13, 2025. https://www.avma.org/resources/pet-owners/petcare/selecting-pet-reptile
4. Centers for Disease Control & Prevention (CDC). Reptiles and Amphibians. CDC. June 9, 2025. Accessed September 15, 2025. https://www.cdc.gov/healthy-pets/about/reptiles-and-amphibians.html
5. Divers SJ, Comolli JR. Management and Husbandry of Reptiles. MSD Veterinary Manual. July 2025. Accessed September 15, 2025. https://www.msdvetmanual.com/exotic-and-laboratory-animals/reptiles/management-and-husbandry-of-reptiles
6. Hutchings J, Crane M. Recent Scientific Insight Into the Spatial Needs of Captive Snakes. Int J Zool. 2025;2025(1):3548045. doi:10.1155/ijz/3548045
7. Divers SJ, Stahl SJ. Maders Reptile And Amphibian Medicine And Surgery. 3rd ed. Saunders; 2019. Accessed September 15, 2025. https://evolve.elsevier.com/cs/product/9780323482530?role=student
8. Zwart P. Pathophysiology: Assessment of the husbandry problems of reptiles on the basis of pathophysiological findings: A review. Vet Q. 2001;23(4):140-147. doi:10.1080/01652176.2001.9695103
9. Divers SJ, Comolli JR, João B. Overview of Reptiles. MSD Veterinary Manual. July 2025. Accessed September 13, 2025. https://www.msdvetmanual.com/exotic-and-laboratory-animals/reptiles/overview-of-reptiles
10. Divers SJ, Comolli JR, João B. Clinical Procedures for Reptiles. MSD Veterinary Manual. July 2025. Accessed September 13, 2025. https://www.msdvetmanual.com/exotic-and-laboratory-animals/reptiles/clinical-procedures-for-reptiles
11. Mitchell M. Ring the Bell, Dinner's Served: Nutritional Considerations for Captive Reptiles. https://dvm360storage.com/cvc/proceedings/dc/Exotic%20Animal%20Medicine/Mitchell,%20Mark_Ring_bell_dinner_served_STYLED.pdf
12. Divers SJ, Comolli JR. Environmental Diseases and Traumatic Injuries of Reptiles. MSD Veterinary Manual. July 2025. Accessed September 15, 2025. https://www.msdvetmanual.com/exotic-and-laboratory-animals/reptiles/environmental-diseases-and-traumatic-injuries-of-reptiles
13. Divers SJ, Comolli JR. Nutritional, Metabolic, and Endocrine Diseases of Reptiles - Exotic and Laboratory Animals. MSD Veterinary Manual. July 2025. Accessed September 15, 2025. https://www.msdvetmanual.com/exotic-and-laboratory-animals/reptiles/nutritional-metabolic-and-endocrine-diseases-of-reptiles
14. Divers SJ, Comolli JR. Reproductive Diseases of Reptiles. MSD Veterinary Manual. July 2025. Accessed September 15, 2025. https://www.msdvetmanual.com/exotic-and-laboratory-animals/reptiles/reproductive-diseases-of-reptiles
15. Divers SJ, Comolli JR, Brandão J. Viral Diseases of Reptiles. MSD Veterinary Manual. July 2025. Accessed September 13, 2025. https://www.msdvetmanual.com/exotic-and-laboratory-animals/reptiles/viral-diseases-of-reptiles
16. Divers SJ, Comolli JR, João B. Bacterial Diseases of Reptiles. MSD Veterinary Manual. Accessed September 13, 2025. https://www.msdvetmanual.com/exotic-and-laboratory-animals/reptiles/clinical-procedures-for-reptiles
17. Xiaoli L. Reoccurring Salmonella Cotham Outbreak Linked to Pet Bearded Dragons — United States, 2024. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2025;74. doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm7431a1
18. FDA's Center for Veterinary Medicine. Salmonella, Feeder Rodents, and Pet Reptiles and Amphibians – Tips You Should Know to Prevent Infection. U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). June 17, 2024. Accessed September 13, 2025. https://www.fda.gov/animal-veterinary/animal-health-literacy/salmonella-feeder-rodents-and-pet-reptiles-and-amphibians-tips-you-should-know-prevent-infection